The British rule in India significantly impacted the country’s agricultural industry. On the onset of British Raj, agricultural production flourished with the introduction of improved infrastructure and capital investment, resulting in higher yields. Land revenue and taxation policies however, greatly affected marginal farmers and tenant farmers. For example, the Permanent Settlement of 1793 giving exclusive property rights of land to those who paid high taxes, leaving those who could not afford to do so unable to compete in the market.
The Produce Advancement Act of 1874, allowing landlords to advance produce to farmers for immediate payments of loans, led to a significant rise in tenant farmer debts. The Development Act of 1883 allowed the conversion of public lands into private property, creating vast inequities.
Furthermore, Indian farmers were unable to compete with British exports which flooded the local market, leading to lower prices, further affecting their income. In addition, the Farm Act of 1890 decentralized administrative oversight of the production of food grains while the Grazing Ground Act of 1897 increasingly reduced the availability of grazing land resulting in increased expenditure on fodder.
Despite this, the railway network and introduction of steamships for transportation significantly contributed to the development of the agricultural industry, resulting in extensive cash crops production in the 19th century. Moreover, technological innovations such as the introduction of the mechanical reaper and thresher, improved irrigation, and the use of better quality seeds, led to higher crop yields, thereby assisting the farmers.
While there were both positive and negative aspects of the British rule on Indian agriculture, it can be said that the negative impacts were more severe, vilifying the colonizers in the eyes of most Indian people.
Opposition to the Taxation System
Rent-seeking landlords and money-lenders imposed particularly large financial burdens on the marginal farmers and tenant farmers, due to the draconian taxation policies imposed by the British government. The system of taxation being implemented was often arbitrary, created differences between land-owners and common people, and was perceived as harming the lower classes. This resulted in frequent uprisings and revolts in an attempt to challenge the rule of the colonizers. Furthermore, bills like the Vernacular Press Act of 1878, and the Arms Act of 1878 were created with the intention of curbing public displeasure, though ineffectively.
Consolidation of Agricultural Land
The British policy of land consolidation enacted in 1894 also resulted in the closure of hundreds of small and medium-sized primeval forests, leading to widespread deforestation. This policy led to a significant increase in the amount of agricultural land and vastly improved agricultural productivity. However, the destruction of forests adversely affected the sustainability of the ecological balance and degraded the soil quality due to overgrazing and improper soil management.
Reduction in the Livelihood of Local People
The emergence of large-scale industrial crops and decentralization of the production of food grains through the Farm Act of 1890 and Grazing Ground Act of 1897 also reduced opportunities for local people as there was increased demand for cash crops, leading to the loss of agricultural laborers, adversely affecting the livelihood of the lower classes.
Reliance on Chemical Fertilisers
In addition, the government encouraged farmers to rely on chemical fertilizers for sustenance. This led to excessive use of chemical fertilizers, thus degrading the quality of the soil and contaminating the ground and surface water. Consequently, this made the land unfit for agricultural activities, rendering hundreds of acres barren which ultimately resulted in lowered income and higher unemployment.
Displacement of People
Finally, several agriculturists were displaced due to the imposed zamindari system, leading to poverty and lack of access to basic needs. The British also displaced thousands of people residing in the interior areas by introducing large-scale commercial plantations. This directly led to loss of the fertile land and adversely affected the local population, leading to displacement and racial discrimination.
Discrimination against Indian Produce
The colonial masters also attempted to control the production of Indian crops as there was fear of competition from the local produce. For example, the Cairns Cotton Act of 1881 provided an export duty on Indian cotton, thereby discriminating against indigenous produce. This eventually gave rise to a certain degree of inequality in the agricultural sector, leading to a steep fall in the people’s income.
Adoption of New Crops
The British Raj also introduced Indian farmers to a myriad of new crops or hybrids of the existing ones, such as teak and rubber. The introduction of the cold storage system in 1888 enabled the farmers to store agricultural produce for longer periods thereby preventing any wastage. Although the new crops were successful, the lack of appropriate capital investment hindered the Indian farmers’ ability to start off with the new agricultural ideas.
